M.S. Thesis:

Overview

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the possibility of interbasin transfer of groundwater between two karstic drainage basins in central Pennsylvania. Traditionally, the elongate valleys of the Appalachian fold belt have been considered hydrologically independent. This study is important because results could be applied to similar basins in the Ridge and Valley Province for groundwater flow models and to trace possible contaminants.

Geologic Setting

Nippenose Valley and Sugar Valley are two anticlinal karst valleys located in Central Pennsylvania. Nippenose Valley is situated in the northernmost fold sequence of the Ridge and Valley Physiographic Province, almost wholly in Lycoming County, while Sugar Valley is in the next southern fold sequence, and is located entirely in Clinton County (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Shaded relief map of Pennsylvania (after Sterner, 1995) showing location of study area outlined in white box.

Nippenose Valley is uniquely bowl-shaped and consists of a doubly plunging anticline. The center has been eroded, exposing carbonate rocks in the valley. There is an average total of about 470 meters of Lower to Middle Ordovician limestone and dolomite underlying the valley. The Reedsville Shale is stratigraphically above them, and overlain by the ridge forming Bald Eagle Sandstone. The valley has been intensely karstified, as evidenced by the numerous sinkholes, springs, caves, and disappearing streams (Fig. 2). All of the surface drainage from mountain runoff in the form of small streams descends into sinkholes soon after crossing the siliciclastic-carbonate boundary (Lloyd and Carswell, 1981). These sinking streams, plus contribution from precipitation and snowmelt, appear to be the only sources of recharge to the groundwater. During high-flow conditions, these sinks may overflow into otherwise dry streambeds. The groundwater eventually resurges at three springs in the northwest section of the valley. The springs, Nippeno Spring, Old Safety Valve, and New Safety Valve, are within close proximity to each other, and all drain into Antes Creek, which ultimately feeds the West Branch of the Susquehanna River (Digel, 1987). Nippeno Spring is reputed to be one of the largest springs in the commonwealth, with an estimated median discharge of 1.1 cubic meters per second (Faill and Wells, 1977), and a depth of 31 meters (Hoover, 1960).

Figure 2: Topographic mosaic showing the geographic relationship between Nippenose Valley and Sugar Valley (after U.S.G.S., 1965a, b, c, d, e, f, and g.).

Sugar Valley is about 9.7 km southwest of Nippenose Valley. It is very similar to Nippenose Valley in that the same carbonate units underlie it. However, it is more elongate in shape, and contains a stream that is more perennial than those in Nippenose Valley. Fishing Creek enters at the far east side of Sugar Valley, and flows more continuously and with increasing volume across the valley floor until it exits at the northwest corner of the valley.

Statement of Problem

Loges (1995) suggested a disparity in the water budget of the Nippenose Valley drainage basin. He found that the output flow from Antes Creek was approximately two to three times greater than the sum of the inputs from the streams and precipitation. It is hypothesized that groundwater flow from Sugar Valley to Nippenose Valley exists. There are several reasons why this is plausible. Sugar Valley is elevationally higher than Nippenose Valley (about 140 meters difference from valley floor to valley floor), which suggests that a hydraulic gradient exists. Anecdotal evidence from local residents appears to have connected the two valleys hydrologically. However, dye traces performed by members of the Bald Eagle Grotto of the National Speleological Society (N.S.S.) have suggested that even aligned sinkholes within Nippenose Valley are not connected hydrologically (Hollick, 2001). I seek to develop a better understanding of groundwater flowpaths through Nippenose Valley using field observation, well records, previous research, and dye traces.

There is a fault system at the western end of the valley that may influence groundwater flow in this area. The St. James Fault Complex follows the outcrop trend around the western end of the valley, until it splays almost due south along Rauchtown Creek. If this fault system continues southward to Sugar Valley, it could serve as an enhanced permeability groundwater route to Nippenose Valley. The nature of the karst features developed in Nippenose Valley is unique for the region. The sinkholes, especially in the western end of the valley near the springs, are 15-30 meters deep from the land surface, and the bedrock walls are nearly vertical (Haas and Hoover, 1958). Three of these sinkholes are aligned with the predominant joint set in the area (Myer, 1994; Miller, 1995), which suggests that the structural geology of the region has an impact on the hydrogeology.

The glacial history of the area may also have affected the hydrogeology. Although neither valley has itself been glaciated, proglacial events have had an impact in Nippenose Valley. According to Ramage et al. (1998), glacial ice dammed the West Branch of the Susquehanna River in the early Pleistocene. The resultant Glacial Lake Lesley had an estimated maximum elevation of ~340 meters, and would have flooded Nippenose Valley to a depth of 100 meters. It is possible that this could have reversed groundwater flow, forcing water along permeable zones to Sugar Valley.

It has also been hypothesized that deep groundwater circulation, greater than 300 meters, may occur in nearby Nittany Valley, which is a similar karst valley in Centre County containing the same limestone units (Parizek, 1971). Groundwater mounds in the potentiometric surface that have caused flooding in residential basements have been observed in well logs on a small hill in the valley. It has been postulated that this groundwater exists in a sandstone member of the Bellefonte dolomite, and is recharged in the adjacent mountain to create sufficient hydraulic head.

Procedures

A preliminary site visit has been made, and contacts have been established with members of the Bald Eagle Grotto of the N.S.S., and with workers from the Pennsylvania State University that have conducted research in Sugar Valley and nearby Nittany Valley. The next task I will undertake is to verify the calculations in the water budget for Nippenose Valley. I will also ascertain if a similar water budget study has been performed in Sugar Valley, and conduct one if needed. Information that needs to be obtained includes: aerial photographs from the 1920-1930Õs, water well data, historical stream flow data for Antes Creek. Aerial photographs can be used to find karst features that may have been present before quarrying in the western end of the valley, and before current levels of forestation, and also to locate features that are not on the topographic maps. Water well data for both valleys, and hopefully the area in between, will provide a basis for construction of a cross-section between the two valleys. The U.S. Geological Survey gauged Antes Creek from 1973-1975. This data can help to illustrate seasonal and other trends in Nippenose Valley discharge.

A member of the Nittany Grotto of the N.S.S., Mr. Bryan Crowell, has been contacted and is also willing to disclose his knowledge and observations in Sugar Valley. Then the Sugar Valley dye injection sites will be selected and detection sites in Nippenose Valley will be chosen. These will be selected mainly on the basis of probability of meaningful results, accessibility, and suitable, continuous discharge (Jones, 1984). For example, if the Old Safety Valve Spring is to be used as a possible dye detection site, this can only be accomplished when it is issuing discharge. An environmentally safe dye, possibly Fluorescein or bromine, will be used, and detectors will be both quantitative and qualitative. If a fluorescent dye is chosen, background fluorescence at each detection site will be measured to ensure detectable breakthrough measurements.

Expected Results

The tracer tests are expected to show a definitive connection between sink(s) in Sugar Valley and one or more of the springs in Nippenose Valley. This connection may not be clearly established because of slow groundwater velocities or other reasons. However, the likelihood of this connection, and a better understanding of groundwater paths within Nippenose Valley itself, will be gained through the generated maps and cross-sections.

References

• Digel, R.K., 1987, Determination of discharge-chemistry relationship and relative catchment areas of two springs in the Nippenose Valley, central Pennsylvania [unpublished undergraduate thesis]: Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Department of Geology, Bucknell University, 73 p.
• Faill, R.T., and Wells, R.B., 1977, Bedrock geology and mineral resources of the Linden and Williamsport quadrangles, Lycoming County, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geologic Survey Atlas 134ab, 66 p.
• Glaspey, R.G., 1978, Water quality and its relation to the hydrology, geology, and land use in the Nippenose Valley [unpublished undergraduate thesis]: Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Department of Geology, Bucknell University, 33 p.
• Hollick, D., 2001, personal communication, Collomsville, Pennsylvania.
• Haas, J. and Hoover, H., 1958, Depth measurements in springs in Nippenose Valley: The Nittany Grotto Newsletter, vol. 7, no. 1, p. 9-10.
• Hoover, H., 1960, Diving at CarpenterÕs Spring: The Nittany Grotto Newsletter, vol. 8, no. 4, p. 64.
• Jones, W.K., 1984, Dye tracer tests in karst areas: The National Speleological Society Bulletin, vol. 46, no. 2, p. 3-9.
• Lloyd Jr., O.B., and Carswell, L.D., 1981, Groundwater resources of the Williamsport region, Lycoming County, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geological Survey Water Resource Report 51, 69 p.
• Loges III, E.G., 1995, Groundwater flow paths in the Nippenose Valley karst system, north-central Pennsylvania [unpublished undergraduate thesis]: Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Department of Geology, Bucknell University, 36 p.
• Miller, J.N., 1995, Structural controls on karstification in the Nippenose Valley, Pennsylvania [unpublished undergraduate thesis]: Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Department of Geology, Bucknell University, 67 p.
• Myer, E.M., 1994, Karst hydrogeomorphology of Nippenose Valley north-central Pennsylvania [unpublished undergraduate thesis]: Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Department of Geology, Bucknell University, 48 p.
• Parizek, R.R., 1971, Influence of structure, in Parizek, R.R., White, W.B., and Langmuir, D., eds., Hydrogeology of folded and faulted rocks of the central Appalachian type and related land-use problems: Pennsylvania State University, Earth and Mineral Sciences Experiment Station Circular 82, 181 p.
• Ramage, J.R., Gardner, T.W., and Sasowsky, I.D., 1998, Early Pleistocene Glacial Lake Lesley, West Branch Susquehanna River valley, central Pennsylvania: Geomorphology, v. 22, p. 19-37.

References Not Cited In Text

• Berg, T.M. and Dodge, C.M., eds., 1981, Atlas of preliminary geologic quadrangle maps of Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geologic Survey, Fourth Series, Atlas 61, 636 p.
• Cane, G., and Clark, I.D., 1999, Tracing ground water recharge in an agricultural watershed with isotopes: Ground Water, v. 37, p. 133-139.
• Jerz, J. 1995, The changes in water chemistry along Rauchtown/Antes Creek in central Pennsylvania [unpublished undergraduate thesis]: Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Department of Geology, Bucknell University, 29 p.
• Kirick, C.M., 1998, Use of macroinvertebrates as indices of groundwater quality in a karst aquifer, Nippenose Valley, PA [unpublished undergraduate thesis]: Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Department of Geology, Bucknell University, 80 p.
• Pasquarell, G.C. and Boyer, D.G., 1995, Agricultural impacts on bacterial water quality in karst groundwater: Journal of Environmental Quality, vol. 24, p. 959-969.
• Shuster, E.T., and White, W.B., 1971, Seasonal fluctuations in the chemistry of limestone springs: a possible means for characterizing carbonate aquifers: Journal of Hydrology, v. 14, p. 93-128.
• Shuster, E.T., and White, W.B., 1972, Source areas and climatic effects in carbonate groundwaters and carbon dioxide pressures: Water Resources Research, v. 8, p. 1067-1073.
• Sterner, R., 1995, Shaded relief map of Pennsylvania, available at: http: //fermi.jhuapl.edu/states/maps1/pa.gif
• Stone, R.W., 1953, Descriptions of Pennsylvania's undeveloped caves: National Speleological Society Bulletin, v.15, p. 51-137.
• Thompson, R.R., 1963, Lithostratigraphy of the Middle Ordovician Salona and Coburn Formations in Central Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geologic Survey General Geology Report G 38, 154 p.
• United States Geological Survey, 1965a, Carroll, Pennsylvania, 7.5 minute topographic quadrangle, scale 1:24,000.
• _______ 1965b, Jersey Shore, Pennsylvania, 7.5 minute topographic quadrangle, scale 1:24,000.
• _______ 1965c, Linden, Pennsylvania, 7.5 minute topographic quadrangle, scale 1:24,000.
• _______ 1965d, Loganton, Pennsylvania, 7.5 minute topographic quadrangle, scale 1:24,000.
• _______ 1965e, Mill Hall, Pennsylvania, 7.5 minute topographic quadrangle, scale 1:24,000.
• _______ 1965f, Millheim, Pennsylvania, 7.5 minute topographic quadrangle, scale 1:24,000.
• _______ 1965g, Williamsport, Pennsylvania, 7.5 minute topographic quadrangle, scale 1:24,000.
• White, W.B., 1960, Terminations of passages in Appalachian caves as evidence for a shallow phreatic origin: National Speleological Society Bulletin, v.22, p. 43-53.
• White, W.B., 1976, The geology of caves, in White, W.B., ed., Geology and biology of Pennsylvania caves: Pennsylvania Geological Survey General Geology Report 66, 103 p.
• Zojer, J. and Stichler, W., 1989, Groundwater characteristics and problems in carbonate rock aquifers, in Isotope techniques in the study of the hydrology of fractured and fissured rocks: Proceedings of an advisory group meeting, Vienna, 17-21 November 1986, International Atomic Energy Agency, p.159-171.